The information that exists about The Immortals is somewhat sparse. It is known that they were troops that fought for the Achaemenid Empire which ws in power in Persia from 550 BCE to 330 BCE. Persia was a true force to be reckoned with. Although the Persians were nomadic originally, they settled on a plateau in southwest Iran. From there, they expanded outward until finally, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, the empire stretched from the Indus Valley (the eastern boundary of the empire) to the northeastern border of Greece. During its growth, the Persian Empire managed to absorb Egypt, Macedon and Thrace and had absorbed the Median, Lydian and Babylonian Empires.

It is known that these were the elite troops of the Persian Empire. They had several different functions besides taking on Spartans. One was to act as heavy infantry while on duty with the standing army and the other was to act as part of the Imperial Guard.

Because the unit was expected to act as infantry in the standing army they were outfitted as such. The Immortals carried shields and weapons such as spears, swords, bows and arrows and daggers. These allowed them to be very versatile in combat. They wore scale armor which was topped by rich clothing. The Immortals were elite troops. Because of this they were often showered with gold and this showed clearly in the clothing they wore and the equipment that they travelled with. Unlike other troops, the Immortals were allowed to bring women and servants with them. These non-combatants travelled in covered wagons and were dressed very elaborately. The Immortals even received special food that was not given to the remainder of the army.

The uniform of the Immortals was made up of an embroidered, sleeved tunic, scale mail and trousers. They wore tiaras and soft felt caps on their heads. They were armed with short spears, short swords and bows and arrows. In addition to their scale mail shirts they were protected by a wicker shield that each man carried.

Much of the information we have on this unit comes from the writings of Herodotus, a Greek historian who lived from 484 BCE to 425 BCE. He stated that the Immortals always numbered ten thousand men and that any time there was a vacancy (whether due to illness or death) it was instantly filled. The unit was exclusive and soldiers had to apply to join it. They were only accepted if they were of Persian, Elamite or Median ethnicity.

In addition to the battle of Thermopylae, the Immortals also participated in other battles. In 547, they participated in the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by Cyrus the great and took part in the Egyptian campaign mounted by Cambyses in 525 BCE. In 520 BCE and 513 BCE, the Immortals also took part in fighting in Scythia under Darius the Great.

Al Khazneh was built very differently. This is a building found in the Jordanian city of Petra. It has beautiful soaring lines and an intricate façade that begs the question of how it could be created from individual bricks or blocks. The fact is- it wasn’t. This beautiful building is a true marvel as it was carved from a rose colored sandstone rock face.

The city where Al Khazneh is located is a bit of a mystery as well. Petra was believed to have been founded around the 6^th century BCE and it is located in the country of Jordan, where it is one of the country’s major tourist attractions. Originally it served as a center of the Nabataean caravan trade routes. It was built within rock cuts and was incredibly easy to defend. To reach the city from the east, for example, it is necessary to travel through a deep rock cleft. The area formed a sort of natural oasis and water was plentiful. The Nabataeans were able to create dams and reservoirs so they could channel and store the water in the area, making it a refuge that was also incredibly hospitable.

Because much of the city is carved from rock it is no wonder that the Nabataeans were known for their carving ability. Al Khazneh is considered to be the pinnacle of their carving, however. They removed the rock by exploiting its natural fissure lines and were able to recycle the stone that had been cut away for other buildings. The façade of the building has columns and is designed with many familiar elements of Western architecture. The Nabataeans had contact with other cultures such as the Greeks due to their active participation in trading items such as frankincense, myrrh and other luxury items. At its height, the Nabataean empire reached as far north as Damascus and as far south as Hegra.

Although Al Khazneh is thousands of years old it continues to attract attention even now. The building has been used as a backdrop for several movies. Two of the most famous include Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, and Transformers; and Transformers:Revenge of the Fallen. While the purpose of Al Khazneh varies depending on which film you are watching the original purpose for this unique and beautiful building is still a mystery.

Tigranes seemed to be set: he had an enormous amount of territory, vast armies at his disposal, and more than enough resources to boot. What could possibly go wrong? Of course, there was one thing he hadn’t counted on – the return of troublesome in-laws. Indeed, his father-in-law Mithridates IV managed to find refuge in Armenian lands after his peace treaty with Rome, and had been hiding out there ever since.

It was inevitable that Tigranes would eventually have his own conflict with the Romans – the two greatest powers in the world had to come to a head one way or another, since there was only so far either of them could expand before running into each other. The Roman general Lucullus was in control of the army now, and it just so happened that he knew where Mithridates IV was hiding. Rome demanded that Mithridates IV be expelled from Armenia, but naturally, Tigranes simply couldn’t give up his ally and father-in-law.

So, Tigranes went to battle with Rome in 69 BC because his father-in-law needed a place to stay. The battle was held at the city of Tigranocerta in Armenia, and though by all rights it should have been an easy victory, some of the non-Armenian guards betrayed Tigranes in the midst of battle by opening the city gates to the Romans – which forced Tigranes to redirect 6000 of his cavalrymen into the city in order to rescue his wives, children, and other assets. As a result, Tigranes officially lost the battle.

Not one to be shafted from victory, Tigranes and Mithridates regrouped and met Lucullus at the city of Artaxata the following year. The Armenian and Pontic forces were 70,000 strong, and cut a devastating swath through the Roman legions – so bad were the losses that between 68 and 67 BC, Lucullus’ troops staged three mutinies! Finally, Lucullus realized he was fighting a losing battle, and moved the fight in a different direction – instead of continuing to fight on the rough terrain of Northern Armenia, he moved south to plunder lands held by Tigranes’ brother.

Even so, Lucullus’ plan was a failure, and he was not able to defeat or capture either Tigranes or Mithridates. Disgusted in his performance, he was recalled by Rome and replaced with a new general: Pompey the Great. Meanwhile, Mithridates was able to return to Pontus with an army of 8,000 men, and Tigranes proceeded to recover much of his former territory. However, in the process, he fought and defeated his younger son who had accepted an army from Parthia – forcing the man to seek protection under the newest Roman general.

With his lands recovered and fully believing himself secured against Rome, Tigranes’ confidence would become his downfall. In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with the younger son of Tigranes allied at his side. Realizing his mistake, Tigranes the Great – now nearly 75 years old – surrendered to Rome. To Rome’s credit, Pompey actually treated Tigranes with great dignity and generosity, allowing the former ‘king of kings’ to retain some portions of his empire in exchange for only 6,000 talents of silver. As for the unfaithful son, both Tigranes and Pompey agreed to send him back to Rome as a prisoner.

And so, until his death in 55 BC, Tigranes the Great – held in great respect by Rome for his military skills and vast territorial accomplishments – was thus allowed to rule Armenia as a Roman ally.

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Tomorrow: More Ancient Standard

The king under whom he had been held hostage died in 88 BC, and due to excessive internal squabbling and numerous Scythian invasions, Parthia seemed ripe for the taking. Tigranes promptly seized control of Parthia and his seventy valleys, ravaged the countryside, forced compliance out of the lands along the upper Tigris, and swept his army across Mesopotamia, the Euphrates, parts of Syria, and then Phoenicia, taking control of as much territory as possible.

Apparently, breaking the alliance with Mithridates had been a good thing! After a bloody feud in Syria for the throne, in 83 BC the Syrians actually chose Tigranes as their protector, offering him the crown. In acceptance, he destroyed the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire.

Tigranes had no qualms about devastating large territories and shipping off their inhabitants to a new city he’d built called Tigranakert. At the height of his empire, his borders stretched from the Pontic Alps to Mespotamia, and all the way across the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. In a bit of a display of machismo, he went as far as Ecbatana in Persia and claimed the title ‘king of kings’ – an arrogant gesture even for him, since neither the Armenians nor the Parthians used this title for their leadership.

Prior to Tigranes’ assumption of power, none of the Armenian kings had issued coins, let alone coins with their own image stamped on them. Taking up the Seleucid tradition – after all, he had taken away their Syrian kingship – Tigranes had coins minted at Antioch and Damascus, and displayed the image of himself wearing an Armenian tiara with ear-flaps. Most of the coins were silver tetradrachms or copper, though a few gold examples have survived.

With so much territory and power, Tigranes seemed set. Who could oppose him now…?

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Tomorrow: The conclusion!

Born in 140 BC, Tigranes the Great was an intelligent man whose military exploits, for a short while, earned him the position of the most feared man in the Roman Empire. As king of Armenia, he was a representative of the Artaxiad Royal House and was married to Cleopatra of Pontus – he was forty-seven and she was only sixteen at the time of the marriage.

For the majority of his life, Tigranes was a hostage at the court of King Mithridates II of Parthia – when he was 40 years old, Tigranes was able to purchase his freedom by giving away an area of land called the “Seventy Valleys” to the Parthians, and only then did they allow him to do so because his father had died, leaving the throne open to his succession.

When Tigranes took power, the foundation of the empire in Armenia had already been well laid by his father. However, the Armenian mountains created natural borders between different sections of the country, which had caused the feudalistic Nakharars to exert a little more power over their regions and provinces than was appropriate. Naturally, Tigranes saw that this could cause significant problems in the future, and he decided that he’d much rather consolidate his power in Armenia before heading out and conquering more land – leaving the door open for regional leaders to revolt really wasn’t an option.

After taking care of the organizational matters in his own empire, he quickly forged an alliance with Mithridates VI of Pontus by marrying his daughter. The two leaders were able to forge their way into Asia Minor and began to expand their empires together – but it wasn’t long before the Romans noticed what was happening. In 90 BC, the Roman Republic sent legions after Tigranes and Mithridates, but Tigranes thought better of fighting the Romans at this point, and although he supported the Pontic alliance, he refused to get directly involved.

With Tigranes forging new ground in the East and his ally gaining ground in Roman-controlled Europe, the Romans realized that more needed to be done. In 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the massacre of 80,000 Romans in Asia – and as the two kings slowly made their way around Cappadocia, the Roman senate appointed Lucius Cornelius Sulla to command an army against the Pontics and Armenians.

As the power of the Roman Empire advanced on Mithridates, it looked as though the dynamic duo’s partnership would soon come to an end…

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Tomorrow: Part 2!

Owning a horse has historically been considered a bit of a status symbol, and in polo, all team members must have their own, well-trained beast, in order to participate. The sketchy historical records suggest that polo was initially developed by competing tribes in Central Asia, and was quickly adopted as a training program for Kings’ cavalry and other elite troop guards – these “training” matches could actually have up to 100 mounted men per side, creating a true sense of replica warfare.

As use of the sport progressed, it appears that the noble families began to participate, eventually adopting polo as their own Persian National sport, played only by the nobility. Both women and men participated in matches, and there is even one documented record from the 6th century AD of a Persian queen and her waiting ladies having challenged the Persian King Khosrow II Parviz and his men to a friendly, family game!

Indeed, ancient Persian art and literature give detailed accounts of polo games played in the royal courts, including many references in an epic poem, Shahnameh (The Epic of Kings), from the 9th century by the Iranian poet and historian Ferdowsi, where he discusses various matches held in tournament format. He also makes mention of another Persian prince from the early Persian empire, who apparently learned how to play polo sometime during the 4th century AD, when he was just seven years old.

It wasn’t until the 10th century that an Iranian king actually recorded some of the sport’s general and more important rules, in particular pointing out the potential dangers of playing in a match – and as the centuries progressed, a 13th century Iranian poet even used polo as a basis for one of his love stories!

As the Persian nobles continued to invite other royal families from various countries to play in their tournaments, the popularity of the sport grew and spread rapidly across the East – in fact, there was even a stone tablet next to a polo field along the famous Chinese silk road, reading: “Let other people play at other things. The King of Games is still the Game of Kings.” Coats of arms for the Chinese royal families soon included a polo stick, and it is well know that polo was an important part of royal family life during the reign of Ming-Hung, a time that is often referred to as the Golden Age of Chinese classical culture.

Naturally, not everyone was a good sport when playing these ancient polo matches. Although a 9th century Iranian historian had written instructions concerning how players should behave on the field – such as, “a player should strictly avoid using strong language and should be patient and temperate”, and “if a polo stick breaks during a game, it is a sign of inefficiency” – this apparently didn’t stop the Chinese Emperor Tai-Tsu in 910 AD from beheading all the players in a polo match that he had been watching, simply due to the fact that one of his own favorite players had been unfortunate enough to be killed during the game.

Brutality aside, the game continued to spread, with the Japanese learning the game from Chinese diplomats, and the Arab world picking up on the sport during their conquest of Iran in the 7th century. The polo stick actually became an important heraldic symbol in Islamic courts, and Polo Masters were a common addition to a ruling Caliph’s entourage!

Even with its spreading Eastern popularity, the game didn’t actually make it to the West until the Byzantine period. The ruler of Constantinople during the 12th century tried to encourage the sport’s growth, and his own successor even played until his arm and leg were crushed during a particularly rough match.

Polo continued to spread in this way, moving from royal household to royal household in various Eastern countries – and it wasn’t until sometime during the 18th century that the Western world learned of the existence of the sport, eventually refining the game into what is known today as the ‘modern’ version of polo.

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Tomorrow: What the heck are Tupus?

Although the details of Herodotus’ tale are more likely based around fairy tale than fact, the end of the story has been confirmed by another ancient document called the Chronicle of Nabonidus. The document explains that in the 6th year of the reign of King Nabonidus of Babylon,

“king Astyages called up his troops and marched against Cyrus,
king of Ansan [Persia], in order to meet him in battle. The
army of Astyages revolted against him and in fetters they
delivered him to Cyrus. Cyrus marched agast the country
Ecbatana; the royal residence he seized; silver, gold, other
valuables of the country Ecbatana he took as booty and brought
to Ansan.”

At the very least – whether Harpagus was involved with the army’s defection or not – the details in the Chronicle of Nabonidus imply that after three years of fighting, king Astyages’ troops mutinied and handed him over to Cyrus. Unfortunately for Cyrus, Astyages’ allies did not take the capture of the allied king so well – shortly after the capture, King Croesus of Lydia attacked Cyrus II to avenge Astyages. With Harpagus at his side – for which there are confirmed records – Cyrus defeated Croesus’ advances and ended up overthrowing Lydia as well.

What happened to Astyages after his capture remains unknown. Although the ancient sources agree that he was treated with mercy and leniency not typically given to captive kings, the details of how this occurred differ. While Herodotus claims that the king was left imprisoned for the rest of his life, other sources suggest that Astyages was reinstated as a governor in Parthia, and later met his death at the hands of a political rival. Which version of the tale is actually true is likely to remain unknown indefinitely.

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Tomorrow: Ancient Sugar-Free Gum!

Since almost all the information available on the last king of the Medes comes from the Greek historian Herodotus’ Histories, it is difficult to sort the truth of his writings from tales he wrote down through hearsay. Needless to say, there are some details which can be confirmed: Astyages was the son of king Cyaraxes; he reigned from 585 BC until he was dethroned in 550 BC; and he was married to Aryenis, sister of the Lydian king Croesus, through the terms of a peace treaty agreement that Cyaraxes signed after fighting the Lydians for 5 years.

It is beyond this basic introduction that Herodotus’ ‘historical account’ provides more information, though one should always take Herodotus’ writings with a grain of salt – however, that does not mean that he doesn’t have interesting stories to tell!

According to Herodotus, Astyages was a superstitious and vain king. Sometime during his rule, he had a dream about his daughter Mandane: in the dream, his daughter gave birth to a son who would grow up to destroy his empire. In fear, Astyages arranged a marriage between his daughter and the Iranian prince Cambyses I, who had a reputation for being quiet, thoughtful, and “of little power.” In his mind, a marriage between Mandane and this kind of man would never result in the birth of a child capable of seizing the throne.

After the birth of Mandane and Cambyses’ first son, Astyages had a second dream which he interpreted as a warning against the child’s future actions. Paranoid and fearful, Astyages ordered his courtier (and fellow member of the Median royal house) Harpagus to find and kill the baby. Harpagus, although realizing that disobedience would come with grave punishment, was naturally reluctant to spill royal blood. Hoping to pass the task off to another, Harpagus gave the child to a local herdsman named Mitridates, whose own wife had just given birth to a stillborn child. Mitridates and his wife then raised the child, Cyrus II, as their own – and Harpagus presented the stillborn baby to Astyages as his daughter’s dead son.

Herodotus goes on to explain that when the boy was about 10 years old, it became clear that the child was not the son of a herdsman – his behavior was “far too noble”. Coming across the boy on a chance encounter, Astyages began to be suspicious when realized that the child looked remarkably like himself. He immediately confronted Harpagus about what he had done, and the courtier confessed. Although Astyages spared the child’s life at the advice of his Magi – and allowed Cyrus II to return to his natural parents – Harpagus was subject to a horrendous punishment: Astyages fed Harpagus his own son at a banquet.

Enraged, Harpagus waited for a chance to avenge himself and his family…

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Tomorrow: Part two of the Astyages story

In 1993, a mummy was accidentally discovered in the Chehrabad salt mine in northwestern Iran, and since then, five additional ‘salt men’ have been found elsewhere inside the mine. Who they were and what they were doing there 1700 years ago has yet to be determined, however the unique preservation of the bodies is intriguing, and studies are ongoing in hopes to learn more about these ‘accidental’ mummies.

Salt Man 1: Found in 1993, this body had long hair, a gold earring and a beard, and was found with several items in his possession. These included a leather boot (with the leg inside), three iron knives, a sling and silver needle, pieces of leather rope, a walnut, some pieces of pottery and a grinding stone, and some textile fragments. The skull appears to have been fractured before death, but why he was there and exactly how he died has yet to be determined.

Salt Man 2: Found in 1994, the second salt man still had hair, a beard, nails, jaw, and hand and foot bones still intact. He was found with several pieces of clothing, a hand-woven rug with a unique pattern, and seems to have been around 35-40 years old at death. Interestingly, he was found only about 40 meters away from where the first salt man was discovered.

Salt Man 3: Found in 2005, the third salt man was located underneath a rock – which had unfortunately done a fair bit of damage to the skeleton. The body was found with a leather sack of salt, two pairs of shoes and two cow horns, and a clay tallow burner. According to excavators, the sack of salt was tightened as though he had just filled it and was probably about to leave the mine – whereupon he was crushed by the falling rock.

Salt Man 4: Found in 2005, the fourth salt man may actually be a salt woman! There were no traces on a beard on this mummy, and the height was significantly less than the previous mummies. This one was found with an iron knife inside a scabbard at the body’s waist, and two ceramic jugs with oil inside that might have been used for a lantern. The ‘man’ also wore two gold earrings, and was wearing a knee-length quilted garment and leggings that reached the thighs. Other speculation is that the body is of a young adult male, which could account for the size.

Salt Man 5: Found in late 2005, very little information has been revealed about this mummy.

Salt Man 6: Found in 2007, this salt mummy has yet to be removed from the mine, as excavators are concerned about preservation. The mummy was revealed due to heavy rainfall in the area, and only about half the skull is currently visible underneath the large rock that probably caused his death. Since this salt man was only recently discovered, there is very little information available to the public at the current time.

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Tomorrow: 35000 year old mammoth carving

This skull from ancient Persia, found in one of the Burnt City’s many burials, contains markings thought to have first been mentioned in an ancient Egyptian tale called “The Story of Sinuhe”, written around 2000 BC in hieroglyphs. In the story, an Egyptian physician and nobleman named Sinuhe discusses open brain surgeries in detail. Although there is still debate around whether or not the events described in the story actually took place, elements of the tale that are described in great detail – such as brain surgery – are typically assumed to be factual accounts, simply because of the great level of detail included.

It now appears that, with the appearance of this skull, archaeologists can comfortably say that the practice of brain surgery did not originate in ancient Egypt, but rather in Iran, the location of ancient Persia. While some smaller prehistoric sites in Europe have yielded skulls with holes on top, it is thought that this may have been done for aesthetic or cultural purposes, rather than medical, simply due to the smaller size of the holes.

The typical method of brain surgery at this time was called ‘trepanation’, which involves cutting or drilling a hole into the patient’s skull. This was done to relieve pressure from excess fluids around the brain, or in some cases, possibly to release ‘evil spirits’ from those with mental disorders. It appears that in most cases, the patient survived months or even years after their surgeries.

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Tomorrow: The history of Chocolate!