Archive for the ‘Ancient Egypt’ Category
By: The Scribe on February, 2011
When people think about where the pharaohs of Egypt were buried, the pyramids come instantly to mind. It is true that some rulers of ancient Egypt were buried in these large, elaborated tombs. But this didn’t start happening until around 2630 BCE. This is when building started on the Pyramid of Djoser. The thing is, there were quite a few pharaohs who lived, and died, before the idea of building pyramids was ever thought of. So where were the earlier pharaohs buried? And why was there a sudden switch to larger, more elaborate tombs?
If you were a ruler or a noble during the ancient period of Egyptian history, you were
buried in something called a mastaba. This was a tomb that was shaped like a rectangle. It had sides that sloped outwards and was built from either stone or bricks that had been formed from mud. Because of the Egyptian’s belief in the afterlife, they needed a place where a person’s body could sit and not be disturbed. In Egyptian religion, you needed a body that had not rotted away or been disturbed by animals or other humans. If your body was destroyed, you were denied a place in the afterlife and eternal life was out of the question.
Although it looked like a fairly uncomplicated structure from the surface, a mastaba was actually fairly complex. The bench-like structure that emerged from the sand was not where the body was actually located. Instead, the bodies of the deceased were placed in a sealed chamber that was located deep below the surface of the sand. The structure above had places where offerings could be brought by family members could be placed. The body inside was mummified. This was necessary because the way that the body was sheltered meant that it could not dry out naturally, the way it would if it was placed in the dry air of the desert.
The problem was that these tombs were large, obvious, and known to be the resting place of wealthy Egyptians. So, what’s a poor person to do? In many cases, grave robbers broke into the mastabas and carried off most of the contents that had any value. They often went so far as to destroy the carefully wrapped and preserved bodies as well. Because a defiled body meant no entrance into the afterlife, this was something that frightened and upset ancient Egyptians. They wanted a way to make sure that their graves would remain untouched.
This was one reason why many ancient Egyptians chose to be buried in tombs cut in rock walls instead of mastabas. In fact, by 1550 BCE, the use of mastabas was quite rare. However, they were not totally overlooked. In fact, the earliest pyramid was actually constructed to look like a stack of mastabas that had been placed one on top of another. The Step Pyramid of Djoser was designed to look like mastabas that had been stacked to form steps. It was believed that the steps would allow the soul of the Pharaoh Djoser to climb into heaven.
By: The Scribe on January, 2011
Many people have been to see the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. This massive structure is actually the only remaining example of the Seven Wonders of the World. They know that it is where an Egyptian Pharaoh was buried. But who was it? And why did he want to be buried in such a large and elaborate tomb?
The man at the heart of the pyramid is the Pharaoh Khufu who reigned in Egypt from 2589BCE to 2566BCE. Khufu was the second Pharaoh of the fourth dynasty, which lasted from 2613 to 2494BCE. The Greeks knew him as Cheops. He was not the first pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid. That was his father, the Pharaoh Sneferu. Prior to Sneferu’s reign and death, the pharaohs were buried in rectangular burial structures called mastabas. But Sneferu wanted something larger and grander than his predecessors. He actually had three pyramids constructed in Dahshur. Each of the pyramids allowed architects and builders to perfect this building method and it was these earlier attempts that allowed the Great Pyramid to have such a perfect design. But although those earlier pyramids were stunning, it is Khufu’s Great Pyramid that gained a lot of attention.
The man who ordered it to be built was not known for being a gentle or reasonable ruler. The historian Herodotus claimed that the country was miserable under Khufu’s reign. He was said to have closed down temples and forbade the offering of sacrifices. This is something that many Egyptians would have had a serious problem with. It was also believed that Khufu used forced labor to build the pyramid and that he even sent one of his daughters to a brothel. The claim was that she was supposed to help raise money for the pyramid’s construction.
Another text also outlines Khufu’s cruel actions and attitudes. A document known as the Papyrus Westcar was penned in the period known as the Hyksos period that took place before the 18th Dynasty. In it, it reports that Khufu arranged to have a prisoner killed jus so that he could test the claims that a magician named Djedi could bring people back to life. The prisoner’s life was spared on the request of the magician.
Khufu had multiple wives and many children. He had nine sons and five daughters. He was known to have at least two wives that were buried in smaller pyramids that were attached to the Great Pyramid. The third of the three smaller pyramids is believed to have housed the remains of Khufu’s mother, Hetepheres I.
It was believed that Khufu reigned for anywhere from 50 to 63 years depending on the histories that you consult. Whether or not he was remembered as a cruel and unusual ruler the fact remains that his funerary cult was still in existence until Egypt’s 26th dynasty (672 to 525BCE) and that his funeral mound remains as one of the enduring symbols of the ancient world. People from all around the world have come to gaze on this massive tomb that stands as a lasting testament to this ancient ruler.
By: The Scribe on December, 2010
Many people know the history surrounding the relationship between Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. Not as much is known about the child that they had together. Born in 47BCE, the son, named Ptolemy Caesar and called Caesarion actually reigned along with his mother. But who was he really?
Caesar stayed in Egypt for two years and it was known that during this time, Cleopatra and Caesar had been involved. Cleopatra bore the son although he was never acknowledged by Caesar. Even though he was not officially acknowledged by Julius Caesar, he did permit the boy to carry a part of his name. The mother and son also spent two years in Rome where they were Caesar’s guests. Caesarion was Cleopatra’s eldest son although she did go on to bear other children to Mark Antony. If it is true that he was Caesar’s son, he was the only son that Julius Caesar fathered.
It is widely known how things unfolded. Caesar was assassinated in Rome in 44BCE. Cleopatra took her son back to Egypt and they began to rule there as co-rulers. It was known that while Cleopatra wanted her son to rule the country with her she did not give up any of her authority. This was not surprising since the boy was only three years of age when he was proclaimed King of Egypt.
Mark Antony and Cleopatra went on to form a relationship and she bore him three children. Antony was busy ruling Rome along with Octavian and Lepidus but this dissolved several years later. This was the beginning of the end. Finally, Antony was killed and Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome. He set about to destroy his rivals, one of whom was Caesarion.
Octavian invaded the capital of Egypt in 30BCE. By the time he gained entry to the capital Mark Antony had already killed himself. Cleopatra lasted approximately twelve days after Octavian’s arrival but she too eventually committed suicide. Caesarion’s safety was left in the hands of people who were more worried about their own safety than the boy’s and they allowed Octavian to learn about Caesarion’s whereabouts. 
Here is where documented history gets a bit fuzzy. Some reports say that although Caesarion was sent away, he was tracked down and executed in Alexandria. Other reports and rumors suggest that he was actually sent to India by his mother. Regardless of whether he was sent to India or found in Alexandria the fact is that he was eventually found and assassinated. Popular historical accounts claim that he was strangled although it is not known whether this is true or not.
Caesarion is a fascinating character simply because we don’t know that much about him. He appears in many of the different stories about Cleopatra and Caesar although his age and the role he played in the politics of the time are normally glossed over. Regardless of how he is portrayed in film and on television he is remembered as a successor to Cleopatra as Pharaoh of Egypt.
By: The Scribe on January, 2008
Much of the information that exists about ancient Egypt comes from the burials of ancient pharaohs and the massive structures they commissioned in memorial of themselves – but what about the average person who lived in ancient Egypt? What about the middle class workers, the typical Egyptian who went to work every day to make a living, and came home at night to his family? Historically, very little time and effort has been put into understanding the common people of ancient Egypt, when in reality, it was their work that shaped the nation – no nation prospers without the help of its people, and there were far, far more average citizens than royalty!
An enormous stepping stone toward understanding the lives of the average citizen in ancient Egypt has come in the form of a rare, middle-class tomb found at Abusir, an ancient necropolis used during the 5th and 26th dynasties. The tomb dates back to the Old Kingdom, and perhaps even more shocking – it was fully intact upon discovery, having remained undisturbed for almost 4,500 years.
The man buried inside lived during the 5th dynasty, and according to archaeological observations, was a priest and politician in the Old Kingdom. He was considered “upper middle class” for the time, which placed him below the nobles but higher up in the social scheme than the lower class. The burial chamber was considerably smaller than royal officials or nobles – the room was about 10 meters below ground and had just enough room to pack in the body and a pile of personal effects and offerings: it was 2 meters by 4 meters in total.
Contrary to what many people think of when it comes to ancient Egyptian tombs, this tomb held no gold or silver – but the information gleaned was infinitely more valuable. Located behind a mud-brick wall in an ancient burial shaft, there were dozens of artifacts which are considered “ceremonial”: more than 80 miniature limestone vessels, 10 sealed beer jars, a small jug for perfume, and cups and plates for symbolic food and drink offerings. In addition, four small canopic jars were present – special jars used to hold the ‘important’ organs of the deceased after mummification.
The body rested inside a sarcophagus, but since the burial was done in the Old Kingdom – before the mummification process was perfected – the mummy was in an advanced state of decomposition. However, the same amount of care was given to his preservation: there were hundreds of faience beads inlaid on the burial wrappings, and his 2-meter long, gold-tipped walking stick was buried at his side. In addition, there was a wooden scepter in the sarcophagus that Neferinpu had the right to hold during his lifetime as a symbol of his seniority.
It was a false door to the tomb that revealed who Neferinpu was and why he was buried here. According to the inscriptions, he was part of the administration for two rulers during the 5th dynasty, holding dual posts of both priest and administrative assistant. He was likely responsible for some building projects, as was the custom, but even so would not have been considered part of elite society. During his lifetime, he would have been financially well-off – perhaps even considered “rich” by some – but not in the way that the elite members of society were.
Instead, Neferinpu probably lived comfortably off his salary, but remained part of ancient Egypt’s upper middle class. He was quite apparently loyal to whoever sat on the throne – considering he was able to sit for two administrations without getting deposed or replaced, and as a result, he was probably an individual who was very good at his job. Finding the undisturbed burial has revealed quite a bit about ancient Egypt’s everyday people – something which has, until recently, been a mystery.
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buried in something called a mastaba. This was a tomb that was shaped like a rectangle. It had sides that sloped outwards and was built from either stone or bricks that had been formed from mud. Because of the Egyptian’s belief in the afterlife, they needed a place where a person’s body could sit and not be disturbed. In Egyptian religion, you needed a body that had not rotted away or been disturbed by animals or other humans. If your body was destroyed, you were denied a place in the afterlife and eternal life was out of the question.
This was one reason why many ancient Egyptians chose to be buried in tombs cut in rock walls instead of mastabas. In fact, by 1550 BCE, the use of mastabas was quite rare. However, they were not totally overlooked. In fact, the earliest pyramid was actually constructed to look like a stack of mastabas that had been placed one on top of another. The Step Pyramid of Djoser was designed to look like mastabas that had been stacked to form steps. It was believed that the steps would allow the soul of the Pharaoh Djoser to climb into heaven. 
