Well, besides that.

How about the desire to save money? Or, to put it another way, to “get more stuff” for less cash?

In the 14th & 15th centuries, Medieval armies were looking for a way to supply weapons to their growing armies, but they needed a way to do it cheaply without compromising effectiveness in battle. The result? A new weapon commonly known as the halberd.

A halberd, also called a halbert or Swiss voulge, is a variety of “pole weapon” that requires two hands to wield. The blade of the weapon is mounted on a 5-6 foot shaft, with an additional long, pointed blade protruding from the top. The two-sided blade is axe-like on the front, and over time the design was refined in on order to better fend off approaching cavalry in battle.

On the opposite side of the axe-blade, a sharp hook was added that could be used to snare men on horseback and pull them to the ground. The top part of the weapon shaft was also reinforced with metal, to prevent the halberd from being easily sliced apart by swords.

As a result, the halberd became the weapon of choice for Swiss armies in the 14th & 15th centuries, and was quickly imitated by German armies as the weapon’s effectiveness became apparent. It was only when gunpowder warfare became more prominent in European armies—adding more musketeers and arquebuskiers to the front lines—that the halberd found use as a defensive weapon during reloads.

Though the halberd fell into disuse over time, low-ranking European infantrymen carried halberds from the 16th to 18th centuries—and while these Medieval weapons are of course not used in modern warfare, they can be seen in one place specifically… they’re still used as ceremonial weapons by the Vatican’s Swiss Guard!

One more interesting halberd fact? They were a highly effective means of execution…

In 2008, archaeologists working at the site of Stonehenge in Britain uncovered a child burial containing a variety of items, such as a pottery vessel (which may have contained food provisions for the child in the afterlife), and most remarkably, a carved chalk toy shaped like an animal.

The grave was tentatively dated between 800 B.C. and 20 B.C., and is considered a very important discovery in British pre-history. The discovery of any kind of representational artwork (human or animal) from this period is so rare that Joshua Pollard, the dig’s co-leader from the University of Bristol, commented it’s “almost to the extent where you get the impression there’s a bit of a taboo on making images of animals or people.”

There are two theories on what the toy represents, with one camp claiming it’s a hedgehog, and the other making their case for a pig. Mike Pitts, editor of British Archaeology magazine, expressed that “it’s without doubt a pig”, considering how common wild and domestic pigs were during the period in this region. “And once we get into historical times,” he said, “We know the pig is quite important in Celtic mythology, though not—to my knowledge—hedgehogs.”

He also noted that once the Iron Age got underway in Britain, it wasn’t uncommon to come across figurines. However, it is more or less agreed that this little hedgehog/pig may be the earliest known toy in British history. It was likely made originally as a toy for the infant, or was crafted in memory of the child being stillborn or dying in infancy.

As for those who try to suggest that the child’s death was a result of human ritual sacrifice, Pollard reminds the curious that during this time in history, infant mortality was very high, “so there would have been a lot of natural death.” This seems to be substantiated by a second infant burial found nearby which, although it didn’t contain a toy, held the skeleton of a sheep or goat with stones piled over its head (indicating the animal had been ritually sacrificed).

Regardless of whether this ancient toy was played with or not, there’s no denying that current toy manufacturers could learn a thing or two from prehistoric toymakers about durability!

However, a recent analysis of guinea pig bones found in 2007 at a home that was once part of the Spanish Empire suggests that these creatures may have actually been more companero than cena.

Analysis of the skeleton of the guinea pig, combined with chemical research on its bones and a look at Flemish paintings from this period which depict the animal, has led researchers to conclude that guinea pigs must have been domesticated at this time in Europe, and not necessarily only raised for food.

While it is still common today to raise guinea pigs for food in South America, and the pigs undoubtedly provided some occasional measure of sustenance for Europeans, there’s much more to suggest that they were cared for by both middle-class and upper-class Europeans as pets.

The skeleton of the guinea pig found in 2007 had no evidence of being processed as food, so researchers are quite confident that the creature was a part of the family—and therefore given its own little burial in the backyard.

Guinea pigs would have been considered “exotic” animals, due to their origins across the ocean. It’s actually rare to find guinea pig bones in the archaeological record, which is why their purpose in Europe during the 16th & 17th centuries has remained somewhat vague until this time.

It’s also worth noting that, because guinea pigs are rodents (which tend to have remarkable reproductive capabilities), it’s entirely possible that the whole situation of guinea pigs in Europe may have started with just two creatures being brought over as curiosities… and their presence, needless to say, “expanded” from there.

Before the discovery of the Russian tool kit, it was thought that the remaining Neanderthals were located on the Iberian Peninsula where Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar are now located. However, evidence now exists that suggests that may not have been the case. It is not surprising that the tools were still found on the outskirts of their former range as these were the areas that had Neanderthals living with the least amount of interference by Homo sapiens.

Evidence at the Ural mountain site included hundreds of stone tools, butchered mammoth bones and sand grains. They all show evidence that the site was in use approximately 33,000 years ago. The items were dated using luminescence and radiocarbon techniques. Luminescence dating is a technique that shows how long ago an item was exposed to sunlight. Scientists had believed that Neanderthals were no longer in existence 33,000 years ago.

Unlike other sites, there were no human remains found at the site, which was located at Byzovaya. This makes it difficult to prove that the site was inhabited by Neanderthals. However, the style of the tools is distinctly Neanderthal. In the past, the only sites that had these items were those that were inhabited by Neanderthals.

What has also surprised archaeologists is the fact that the site is located much further north than the range that was previously determined for Neanderthals. The site is located at the same latitude as Iceland. The weather there is brutally cold and it would have been necessary for Neanderthals to learn how to survive and flourish in an extreme climate.

Scientists have found that some humanoids exhibited Neanderthal traits as much as 600,000 years ago. Neanderthals were believed to be comparable to that of modern humans although their bone structure was much more robust than that of Homo sapiens. Neanderthals were also much stronger than modern humans and they had brains that were similar in size, if not larger, than the brain capacity of modern humans.

Previously, it was believed that Neanderthals were strict carnivores although recent evidence of cooked plant matter in the teeth of a Neanderthal skull has caused scientists to reevaluate this view. Neanderthal bones were first discovered in Engis, Belgium in 1829 CE and in Gibraltar in 1848. It is believed that they were alive and active for approximately 100,000 years. Their remains have not been found in Africa.

There have been several theories as to why the Neanderthals became extinct. One theory simply states that modern humans moved into their habitat approximately 80,000 years ago. There may have been violent conflict between Neanderthals and modern humans that eventually led to the Neanderthals being displaced. Another theory states that they interbred with modern humans and simply ceased to exist as a separate species. A final theory states that there may have been a volcanic super-eruption approximately 40,000 years ago that may have led to the demise of Neanderthals.

When his lungs were examined, it was found that they were blackened. Scientists surmised that this was because he had breathed the smoke from campfires. His skin was preserved well enough that the scientists studying the body were able to locate and document tattoos. In this case, they were found on his lumbar spine, behind his right knee and around his ankles. It was believed that they may have been related to acupuncture treatments that were intended to relieve or reduce pain. The earliest confirmed accounts of acupuncture and acupressure in China were from 2000 years later than the time when the iceman walked the earth.

A lot of information was found regarding the iceman’s health. It is known that he suffered from a parasite known as whipworm and that he had been sick approximately three times in the six months that preceded his death. He also suffered from a number of cavities that had deteriorated his teeth prior to his death.

One of the most interesting pieces of information that scientists were able to learn from the Iceman’s body was what his last meal or meals were. Scientists were able to analyze the contents of his lower intestine and had found that he had eaten a meal that consisted of grains and possibly the meat of red deer and goats. They had been unable to use an endoscope to view the contents of his stomach and were unable to tell what his last meal would have been.

Now scientists have been able to study Ӧtzi’s stomach contents. Scanning the body with computer assisted tomography (CAT scanning) showed that the stomach had shifted into the space that would normally be occupied by the lower part of his lungs. Scientists are unsure of exactly why the stomach shifted but were able to locate it and get a sample of its contents.

It is now known that the stomach contained traces of meat and grains. The volume of the stomach contents was fairly substantial which told scientists that Ӧtzi had eaten a large meal approximately two hours before his death. They were able to separate out some larger pieces of meat and grain from the other stomach contents. Scientists are unsure of whether the meat was cooked. There was evidence of animal hairs and fly parts which suggested that the meat may not have been thoroughly cleaned before it was eaten.

Scientists are unsure of why Ӧtzi was killed. They do suspect that his death may not have been from natural causes. An arrowhead had been found lodged in his left shoulder. It was believed that he may have been killed as a ritual sacrifice. The shaft of the arrowhead had been snapped off and evidence of defensive wounds and a blow to the head were also detected.

The Picts had their own unique language which is no longer spoken today. Scientists and anthropologists believe that the language may have been related to the Brythonic languages which were spoken by Britons who were living in the southern areas of the British Isles. The Picts were mentioned in the Roman conquest of Britain but disappeared from any historical accounts around the 10^th century. It was believed that at that time, the Picts merged with the Gaels and that their distinct culture ceased to exist.

Scientists have been unable to determine the reason why the Picts may have decorated the large stone slabs. The markings on the stones are not well understood. It is thought that some may have been personal memorials while others may have been decorated with clan markings, or symbols that showed what a person’s lineage may have been. While some acted as personal memorials they are rare.

It is believed that between thirty and sixty separate symbols were used on Pictish stones. Some were quite intricate and complicated. Some stones are decorated with images that represented animals such as salmon, wolves, stags, eagles and adders. Some Pictish stones were decorated with a creature known as the Pictish Beast. The Pictish Beast is a mythological animal that resembles a seahorse. Scientists are not sure what the beast is supposed to represent. Some stones are decorated with images of common, everyday objects that were used by high status individuals.

There are three different classes of Pictish stones. The first, class 1, are made of rough, unworked stone. These tend to be the earliest stones and date from between the 6^th and 8^th centuries. These stones do not have a cross on them but do have other symbols carved into the surface of the stone.

Class 2 stones are somewhat more complex. They often have crosses or other Christian motifs on them. They tend to be more rectangular and may be decorated on both sides. They tend to date from the 8^th and 9^th centuries. This is the beginning of the period when the Picts were becoming Christianized.

The last category of stones dates from the 8^th and 9^th centuries. Unlike the other stones the latest versions are not marked with symbols that are uniquely Pictish. They often have crosses on them and have many different uses and forms.

Individuals who want to see the Pictish standing stones will usually have to go to a museum or other facility in order to see them. The majority have been moved from their original locations although a few still stand at the sites where they were originally placed.

When researchers entered the cave, they were searching for items such as bones, tools and other artifacts as well as stones that may have been used by early residents of the cave. What they found was far more valuable. Even though the cave had been examined many times over the years, the cave art that decorated the walls had never been spotted. Researchers did not even notice the drawings until they were on their way out of the cave.

It was then that the images of handprints and horses were spotted. The drawings have been dated and are believed to have been created approximately 25,000 years ago. The drawings included a red horse with a profile that resembled a duck bill. This was a feature that is fairly common to other European cave art examples.

Other caves in northern Spain have been decorated with Paleolithic cave art. The most famous is likely Altamira. In 1879, scientists discovered that the 270 meter long cave was full of artifacts that ranged in age from 18,500 years ago to 16,500 years ago. The cave was also home to drawings that had been created using ochre, hematite and charcoal. Further variations in color were developed by diluting these three main colors and the end result was a three dimensional image.

Animals tend to be used a lot in Paleolithic cave art. Often, these were animals that were hunted and consumed although not all were. Some of the most common animals that are found in cave art from this era include horses, bison and red deer (also known as hinds). Scientists have theorized that the differences in which animals were most common tended to be more of a regional or artistic difference.

The Basque culture has several legends about the Askondo cave. One legend is that the cave is the home to a mythological beast known as a lamia. This was a half woman-half duck that attacked a young boy and dragged him into the cave. According to legend, he was not seen from again. Other legends state that the cave was used as a meeting place for witches.

Scientists are examining the Askondo cave more extensively now that the cave paintings have been discovered. They plan to excavate the area in order to tell whether there were signs of people living in the cave at the time that the art was completed. Another plan is to restore the paintings that have sustained the most damage or which have faded more extensively than others. The researchers who are examining the cave say that they are excited due to the fact that it is possible to enter the cave using the original entrance, something which is not possible with many of the other caves where this type of artwork has been discovered.

Friday’s status as an unlucky day was mentioned in The Canterbury Tales. These were a collection of stories that were written near the end of the fourteenth century. Their author, Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote the work as a collection of poems and stories. They describe the journey of a group of pilgrims as they travel from Southwark to Canterbury. It was believed that beginning a project or starting a journey on a Friday was unwise. It is unknown why this is although one tradition states that Jesus was crucified on a Friday.

For the Knights Templar, Friday the 13^th was truly unlucky. The order was both monastic and militant in nature. They were formed to protect the pilgrims who were traveling from Europe to Jerusalem. The Crusades were in full swing during this time and the road that pilgrims would travel was, at times, quite perilous. If the Templars had only stuck to physical protection, they likely would not have had any problems. Unfortunately, the order felt that protecting the money belonging to the pilgrims was also important.

The banking system that the order created helped make the Knights Templar wealthy. They used this money in order to fund the purchase of various holdings throughout Europe. The holdings included wineries, homes, mills and castles. The Templars also lent money to a number of individuals including King Philip IV of France. He had been involved in a war with England that had cost him most of his money. Once that was gone, he had then gone deeply into debt by borrowing from the Templars. Instead of paying the money back, Philip had different ideas.

He accused the Templars of many different crimes. Among the charges were that the order spat on the cross, that the order engaged in homosexual acts, and that they practiced heresy. The charges were backed by Pope Clement V and other Vatican officials. The King sent secret orders to the King’s Men and other Bailiffs. They were to be opened at the same time and acted on immediately.

On Friday October 13^th, 1307 the orders were opened and put into action. Every Knight Templar in France was arrested. Their properties were seized in the name of the king and the knights themselves were tortured until they confessed to the charges that had been brought against them. Their leader, the Templar Grand Master Jacques De Molay was ordered to publicly admit his guilt. Instead of doing so, he publicly recanted his confessions and apologized for the weakness that he had shown.

This enraged King Philip and he had De Molay burned at the stake. While he burned, De Molay cursed both the king and the pope, saying they would die before the year ended. This ultimately came true, which has only added to the evil reputation that this day possesses.

According to religious lore, the site (which is known as Saint Patrick’s Purgatory) was shown to Saint Patrick in the fifth century. Christ allegedly revealed the site to Saint Patrick and informed him that it was a literal entrance to hell. It was believed that the site was a cave or pit although some individuals believe that it may actually have been the remnants of a much older structure such as a sweat lodge. According to religious history, the site was referred to as Purgatory by God when the site was being revealed to the saint. It was believed that by showing individuals that Purgatory was real that it would be easier to make the people of Ireland find faith and be converted to the Christian faith.

Saint Patrick lived from 387 CE to 493 CE and was a Briton of Roman descent. He had originally lived in Scotland but was captured by raiders and taken to Ireland when he was approximately sixteen years of age. He lived there as a slave for six years after which he was able to escape and return to Scotland. He was ordained as a bishop after entering the Church and, as a result, was sent to serve in northwest Ireland.

Early Christian converts were full of doubt and, after a while, Saint Patrick began to become discouraged by their constant demands for proof of God. Patrick prayed for God to send him the proof that the people were demanding and, after that, the site on Station Island was revealed to him.

The site originally consisted of a cave but after 1632 pilgrims could no longer access it directly. The site had a narrow entrance which led into a small cave that was divided into two niches. Both were extremely small and only had enough room to kneel and pray in.

While it was widely viewed as an entrance to Hell, some historians and archaeologists have taken a different view of the site. Originally, a “purgatorium” was not somewhere that punishment took place. Instead, it had a more positive reputation. Individuals would often journey to a purgatorium in order to be cleansed and then healed either physically or spiritually.

Regardless of what the original use for the cave was, it is now a place that is visited by people of all faiths and is now used as a place of prayer, meditation and contemplation. They journey to the island by boat and spend three days with very little food. The pilgrimage involves moving around the island barefoot while a number of prayers and liturgies are recited. This ritual has been taking place for more than 1500 years and shows no sign of slowing down today.

Archaeologists have discovered a pit near the town of Weymouth. The remains of 51 skeletons were found in the pit. They had all been decapitated before being placed in the pit and the heads had been stacked to the side. Although the remains had been discovered in 2009, it took several years to determine that they were, in fact, Vikings and not the remains of the ancient Anglo-Saxons who had lived in the area at the time.

Living in ancient Britain had its challenges. The weather in some areas was somewhat inhospitable. Living near rivers was thought to be a good idea up until the Vikings began moving away from the coast in order to attack more inland settlements. They were able to sail up many of the rivers and were quite willing to walk to others in order to raid them for food and other valuables. Often the sheer numbers of Vikings made them an unbeatable force. It became common knowledge that living anywhere within 20 miles (32 km) of the English coast meant that you were susceptible to Viking raids and attacks.

The remains that were found in the Weymouth pit seem to have met a painful and thoroughly unpleasant end. Many of the skeletons have marks on them that showed they were struck repeatedly with axes and other weapons. Several of the skeletons show defensive wounds and one had several fingers on one hand sliced through. The skeletons also bear marks that showed their heads were hacked off rather than removed cleanly.

There were many signs that the individuals in the pit were not well-liked. The first is that they had their heads piled to one side. This may have been a form of display that celebrated a victory over the Viking invaders. Another sign was that they were buried on a hilltop. The pit was located near the main road to Weymouth. Victims of the Vikings were usually left where they fell and were often located in villages or on the beaches where the Vikings landed.

The victims were also buried naked which was unusual. This made it difficult for scientists to determine whether the victims were Vikings or were Anglo- Saxons. Archaeologists often use items such as clothes, weapons and other items in order to tell where a victim may have been from. The lack of any clues made it difficult to tell whether the bodies were Vikings or not.

Recently, scientists were able to test the teeth from the skulls found in the pit. This gave them a large amount of information about the individuals buried there. Tests showed that the skulls belonged to individuals who lived in climates that were much cooler than those in ancient Britain. They also showed clues about the diet that sustained the men in the pit which was also different than that of the Anglo-Saxons living in Britain at the time.